Requirements and Challenges for Profitable Practice Implementation by Smallholder Farmers
Abstract
Alternative Wetting and Drying (AWD), practiced by some in rice farming, is one approach where water use efficiency can be improved and gaseous emissions mitigated while productivity is maintained. However, it also involves intermittent irrigation, allowing the fields to dry out before re-irrigation, as opposed to continuous flooding. They discovered that it is possible to reduce water use by around 25–30% while increasing rice yields by improving root growth and tiller production. Researchers have also discovered that AWD offers significant environmental advantages, such as a 50% reduction in methane emissions. Even though AWD has good potential, smallholders face many challenges when implementing it. These issues stem from the stability of food yields, insufficient knowledge, and restricted access to available infrastructure or technology. Moreover, farmers are hesitant to switch from traditional methods due to concerns that it could be a high-risk activity and involve labor-intensive water management chores. In addition, AWD needs both dependable water delivery infrastructure and monitoring equipment that often do not exist in remote or resource-constrained regions. For the widespread adoption of AWD, we must implement capacity-building initiatives alongside policy backing and investments in irrigation infrastructure. We address the benefits and challenges of AWD for small farmers who want to explore sustainable rice farming.
Full text article
References
Abhishek, A., Das, N. N., Ines, A. V. M., Andreadis, K. M., Jayasinghe, S., Granger, S., Ellenburg, W. L., Dutta, R., Hanh Quyen, N., Markert, A. M., Mishra, V., & Phanikumar, M. S. (2021). Evaluating the impacts of drought on rice productivity over Cambodia in the Lower Mekong Basin. Journal of Hydrology, 599(March), 126291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126291
Alauddin, M., Rashid Sarker, M. A., Islam, Z., & Tisdell, C. (2020). Adoption of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation as a water-saving technology in Bangladesh: Economic and environmental considerations. Land Use Policy, 91(October 2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104430
Arora, V. K. (2006). Application of a rice growth and water balance model in an irrigated semi-arid subtropical environment. Agricultural Water Management, 83(1–2), 51–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.09.004
Arvan, M., & Maley, C. (2022). This version of the article has been accepted for publication, after peer review and is subject to Springer Nature’s AM terms of use, but is not the Version of Record and does not reflect post- acceptance improvements, or any corrections. The Versio. Synthese, 200(3), 1–22.
Chidthaisong, A., Cha-un, N., Rossopa, B., Buddaboon, C., Kunuthai, C., Sriphirom, P., Towprayoon, S., Tokida, T., Padre, A. T., & Minamikawa, K. (2018). Evaluating the effects of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) on methane and nitrous oxide emissions from a paddy field in Thailand. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 64(1), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380768.2017.1399044
Cullingworth (2015). This document is discoverable and free to researchers across the globe due to the work of AgEcon Search. Help ensure our sustainability. AgEcon Search, 18. file:///F:/Spec 2/Traffic Delay Model.pdf
Echegaray-Cabrera, I., Cruz-Villacorta, L., Ramos-Fernández, L., Bonilla-Cordova, M., Heros-Aguilar, E., & Flores del Pino, L. (2024). Effect of Alternate Wetting and Drying on the Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Rice Fields on the Northern Coast of Peru. Agronomy, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14020248
Enriquez, Y., Yadav, S., Evangelista, G. K., Villanueva, D., Burac, M. A., & Pede, V. (2021). Disentangling Challenges to Scaling Alternate Wetting and Drying Technology for Rice Cultivation: Distilling Lessons From 20 Years of Experience in the Philippines. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5(June), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.675818
Kim, J., Park, H., Chun, J. A., & Li, S. (2018). Adaptation strategies under climate change for sustainable agricultural productivity in Cambodia. Sustainability (Switzerland), 10(12), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124537
Hong Trang, V., Nelson, K. M., Samsuzzaman, S., Rahman, S. M., Rashid, M., Salahuddin, A., & Sander, B. O. (2023). Institutional analysis for scaling alternate wetting and drying for low-emissions rice production: evidence from Bangladesh. Climate and Development, 15(1), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2022.2036088
Howell, K. R., Shrestha, P., & Dodd, I. C. (2015). Alternate wetting and drying irrigation maintained rice yields despite half the irrigation volume, but is currently unlikely to be adopted by smallholder lowland rice farmers in Nepal. Food and Energy Security, 4(2), 144–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.58
Hunink, J., Droogers, P., & Tran-Mai, K. (2014). Prepared by FutureWater for Mekong River Commission (MRC) Climate Change and Adaptation Initiative (CCAI) Past and Future Trends in Crop Production and Food Demand and Supply in the Lower Mekong Basin Executive Summary. 1–92. http://www.futurewater.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Food_CC_LMB_v09.pdf
Hung, D. T., Banfield, C. C., Dorodnikov, M., & Sauer, D. (2022). Improved water and rice residue management reduce greenhouse gas emissions from paddy soil and increase rice yields. Paddy and Water Environment, 20(1), 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-021-00877-0
Ishfaq, M., Farooq, M., Zulfiqar, U., Hussain, S., Akbar, N., Nawaz, A., & Anjum, S. A. (2020). Alternate wetting and drying: A water-saving and eco-friendly rice production system. Agricultural Water Management, 241(July). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2020.106363
Kumar, K. A., & Rajitha, G. (2019). Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) irrigation - A smart water saving technology for rice?: A review. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 8(03), 2561–2571. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.803.304
Lampayan, R. M., Samoy-Pascual, K. C., Sibayan, E. B., Ella, V. B., Jayag, O. P., Cabangon, R. J., & Bouman, B. A. M. (2015). Effects of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) threshold level and plant seedling age on crop performance, water input, and water productivity of transplanted rice in Central Luzon, Philippines. Paddy and Water Environment, 13(3), 215–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-014-0423-5
Murphy, T., Irvine, K., & Sampson, M. (2013). The stress of climate change on water management in Cambodia with a focus on rice production. Climate and Development, 5(1), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2013.771570
Nakamura, K., Quang, L. X., & Matsuda, S. (2022). Organizational alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation management in rice by water user groups for reducing methane emission and water saving. Climate Neutral and Resilient Farming Systems: Practical Solutions for Climate Mitigation and Adaptation, 45–68. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003273172-3
Phengphaengsy, F., & Okudaira, H. (2008). Assessment of irrigation efficiencies and water productivity in paddy fields in the lower Mekong River Basin. Paddy and Water Environment, 6(1), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10333-008-0108-z
Rejesus, R. M., Palis, F. G., Rodriguez, D. G. P., Lampayan, R. M., & Bouman, B. A. M. (2011). Impact of the alternate wetting and drying (AWD) water-saving irrigation technique: Evidence from rice producers in the Philippines. Food Policy, 36(2), 280–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.11.026
Sithirith, M. (2021). Downstream state and water security in the mekong region: A case of cambodia between too much and too littlewater. Water (Switzerland), 13(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060802
Song, T., Das, D., Hu, Q., Yang, F., & Zhang, J. (2021). Alternate wetting and drying irrigation and phosphorus rates affect grain yield and quality and heavy metal accumulation in rice. Science of the Total Environment, 752, 141862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141862
Srean, P., Eang, B., Rien, R., & Martin, R. J. (2018). Paddy rice farming practices and profitability in northwest Cambodia. Asian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Safety, 2018(1), 1–5.
Zhao, X., Pu, C., Ma, S. T., Liu, S. L., Xue, J. F., Wang, X., Wang, Y. Q., Li, S. S., Lal, R., Chen, F., & Zhang, H. L. (2019). Management-induced greenhouse gases emission mitigation in global rice production. Science of the Total Environment, 649, 1299–1306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.392
Authors
Copyright (c) 2024 Sodyna Soeurm, Mardy Serey

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.